Thoughts on Go vs. Rust vs. Zig

Novices start slapping global variables everywhere because it makes things easy and it works, until it doesn't and some behaviour breaks because... I don't even know what broke it.

On a smaller scale, mutable date handling libraries also provide some memorable WTF debugging moments until one learns (hopefully) that adding 10 days to a date should probably return a new date instance in most cases.

Sure. And in C and Zig, it's "trivial" to make a global mutable variable, it "just requires" you to flawlessly uphold memory access invariants manually across all possible concurrent states of your program.

Stop beating around the bush. Rust is just easier than nearly any other language for writing concurrent programs, and it's not even close (though obligatory shout out to Erlang).

And it's a good concept, because it makes people feel a bit uncomfortable to type the word "unsafe", and they question whether a globally mutable variable is in fact what they want. Which is great! Because this is saving every future user of that software from concurrency bugs related to that globally mutable variable, including ones that aren't even preserved in the software now but that might get introduced by a later developer who isn't thinking about the implications of that global unsafe!

If you treat shared state like owned state, you're in for a bad time.

Maybe, but the language being hard in aggregate is very different from the quoted claim that this specific thing is hard.

My understanding is that Rust prevents data races, but not all race conditions. You can still get a logical race where operations interleave in unexpected ways. Rust can’t detect that, because it’s not a memory-safety issue.

So you can still get deadlocks, starvation, lost wakeups, ordering bugs, etc., but Rust gives you:

- No data races

- No unsynchronized aliasing of mutable data

- Thread safety enforced through type system (Send/Sync)

This fits quite naturally in Rust. You can let your mutex own the pair: locking a `Mutex<(u32, u32)>` gives you a guard that lets you access both elements of the pair. Very often this will be a named `Mutex<MyStruct>` instead, but a tuple works just as well.

Rust approach to shared memory is in-place mutation guarded by locks. This approach is old and well-know, and has known problems: deadlocks, lock contention, etc. Rust specifically encourages coarse-granular locks by design, so lock contention problem is very pressing.

There are other approaches to shared memory, like ML-style mutable pointers to immutable data (perfected in Clojure) and actors. Rust has nothing to do with them, and as far as I understand the core choices made by the language make implementing them very problematic.

Because rust guarantees you won't have multiple exclusive (and thus mutable refs), you won't have a specific class of race conditions.

Sometimes however, these programs are very strict, and you need to relax these guarantees. To handle those cases, there are structures that can give you the same shared/exclusive references and borrowing rules (ie single exclusive, many shared refs) but at runtime. Meaning that you have an object, which you can reference (borrow) in multiple locations, however, if you have an active shared reference, you can't get an exclusive reference as the program will (by design) panic, and if you have an active exclusive reference, you can't get any more references.

This however isn't sufficient for multithreaded applications. That is sufficient when you have lots of pieces of memory referencing the same object in a single thread. For multi-threaded programs, we have RwLocks.

https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cell/index.html

Logical race conditions and deadlocks can still happen.

They are to be used with caution. If your execution environment is simple enough they can be quite useful and effective. Engineering shouldn't be a religion.

> I can not count how many times I have been pulled in to debug some gnarly crash and the result was, inevitably, a mutable global variable.

I've never once had that happen. What types of code are you working on that this occurs so frequently?

There's lots of interest things you could do with a rust like (in terms of correctness properties) high level language, and getting rid of global variables might be one of them (though I can see arguments in both directions). Hopefully someone makes a good one some day.

If you use unsafe to opt out of guarantees that the compiler provides against data races, it’s no different than doing the exact same thing in a language that doesn’t protect against data races.

I mean, it does. I'm not sure what you consider the default approach, but to me it would be to wrap the data in a Mutex struct so that any thread can access it safely. That works great for most cases.

> Perhaps mutable global variables are not a common use case.

I'm not sure how common they are in practice, though I would certainly argue that they shouldn't be common. Global mutable variables have been well known to be a common source of bugs for decades.

> Unsafe might make it easier, but it’s not obvious and probably undesired.

All rust is doing is forcing you to acknowledge the trade-offs involved. If you want safety, you need to use a synchronization mechanism to guard the data (and the language provides several). If you are ok with the risk, then use unsafe. Unsafe isn't some kind of poison that makes your program crash, and all rust programs use unsafe to some extent (because the stdlib is full of it, by necessity). The only difference between rust and C is that rust tells you right up front "hey this might bite you in the ass" and makes you acknowledge that. It doesn't make that global variable any more risky than it would've been in any other language.

I'm a Rust fan, and I would generally agree with this. It isn't difficult, but trivial isn't quite right either. And no, global vars aren't terribly common in Rust, and when used, are typically done via LazyLock to prevent data races on intialization.

> I don’t know Rust, but I’ve heard pockets of unsafe code in a code base can make it hard to trust in Rust’s guarantees. The compromise feels like the language didn’t actually solve anything.

Not true at all. First, if you aren't writing device drivers/kernels or something very low level there is a high probability your program will have zero unsafe usages in it. Even if you do, you now have an effective comment that tells you where to look if you ever get suspicious behavior. The typical Rust paradigm is to let low level crates (libraries) do the unsafe stuff for you, test it thoroughly (Miri, fuzzing, etc.), and then the community builds on these crates with their safe programs. In contrast, C/C++ programs have every statement in an "unsafe block". In Rust, you know where UB can or cannot happen.

Second, unsafe means the author is responsible for making it safe. Safe in rust means that the same rules must apply as unsafe code. It does not mean that you don't have to follow the rules. If one instead used it to violate the rules, then the code will certainly cause crashes.

I can see that some programmers would just use unsafe to "get around a problem" caused by safe rust enforcing those rules, and doing so is almost guaranteed to cause crashes. If the compiler won't let you do something, and you use unsafe to do it anyway, there's going to be a crash.

If instead we use unsafe to follow the rules, then it won't crash. There are tools like Miri that allow us to test that we haven't broken the rules. The fact that Miri did find two issues in my crate shows that unsafe is difficult to get right. My crate does clever bit-tricks and has object graphs, so it has to use unsafe to do things like having back pointers. These are all internal, and you can use the crate in safe rust. If we use unsafe to implement things like doubly-linked lists, then things are fine. If we use unsafe to allow multiple threads to mutate the same pointers (Against The Rules), then things are going to crash.

The thing is, when you are programming in C or C++, it's the same as writing unsafe rust all the time. In C/C++, the "pocket of unsafe code" is the entire codebase. So sure, you can write safe C, like I can write safe "unsafe rust". But 99% of the code I write is safe rust. And there's no equivalent in C or C++.

But, for loops get tedious. So people will make helper functions. Generic ones today, non-generic in the past. The result is that you have a zoo of iteration-related helper functions all throughout. You'll need to learn those when onboarding to a new code base as well. Go's readability makes this easier, but by definitions everything's entirely non-standard.

And so if in your example every request can have the same Allocator type, and then have distinct instances of that type . For example, you could say "I want an Arena" and pick the Arena type that impls Allocator, and then create a new instance of Arena for each `Vec::new_in(alloc)` call.

Alternately, if you want every request to have a distinct Allocator type as well as instance, one can use `Box<dyn Allocator>` as the allocators type (or use any other dispatch pattern), and provide whatever instance of the allocator is appropriate.

The standard library provides a global allocator. The collections in the standard library currently use that allocator.

It also provides an unstable interface for allocators in general. That's of course useful someday, but also doesn't prevent people from using whatever allocators they want in the meantime. It just means that libraries that want to be generic over one cannot currently agree. The standard library collections also will use that once it becomes stable.

You can impose limits per process/cgroup. In server environments it doesn't make sense to run off swap (the perf hit can be so large that everything times out and it's indistinguishable from being offline), so you can set limits proportional to physical RAM, and see processes OOM before the whole system needs to resort to OOMKiller. Processes that don't fork and don't do clever things with virtual mem don't overcommit much, and large-enough allocations can fail for real, at page mapping time, not when faulting.

Additionally, soft limits like https://lib.rs/cap make it possible to reliably observe OOM in Rust on every OS. This is very useful for limiting memory usage of a process before it becomes a system-wide problem, and a good extra defense in case some unreasonably large allocation sneaks past application-specific limits.

These "impossible" things happen regularly in the services I worked on. The hardest part about handling them has been Rust's libstd sabotaging it and giving up before even trying. Handling of OOM works well enough to be useful where Rust's libstd doesn't get in the way.

Rust is the problem here.

Simplest example is to allocate and pin all your resources on startup. If it crashes, it does so immediately and with a clear error message, so the solution is as straightforward as "pass bigger number to --memory flag" or "spec out larger machine".

To me, the whole point of Zig's explicit allocator dependency injection design is to make it easy to not use the system allocator, but something more effective.

For example imagine a web server where each request handler gets 1MB, and all allocations a request handler does are just simple "bump allocations" in that 1MB space.

This design has multiple benefits: - Allocations don't have to synchronize with the global allocator. - Avoids heap fragmentation. - No need to deallocate anything, we can just reuse that space for the next request. - No need to care about ownership -- every object created in the request handler lives only until the handler returns. - Makes it easy to define an upper bound on memory use and very easy to detect and return an error when it is reached.

In a system like this, you will definitely see allocations fail.

And if overcommit bothers someone, they can allocate all the space they need at startup and call mlock() on it to keep it in memory.

ever? If you have limited RAM and limited storage on a small linux SBC, where does it put your memory?

Function pointers: Zig has a proposal for restricted function types [1], which can be used to enforce compile-time constraints on the functions that can be assigned to a function pointer.

[0]: https://github.com/ziglang/zig/issues/1006 [1]: https://github.com/ziglang/zig/issues/23367

Also malloc can fail even with overcommit, if you accidentally enter an obviously incorrect size like -1.

Clipping doesn't seem to automatically move the data, so while it does mean appending will reallocate, it doesn't actually shrink the underlying array, right?

    b := append(a, …)

[0] https://pkg.go.dev/time@go1.22.12#Timer.Reset

https://security.googleblog.com/2025/11/rust-in-android-move...

https://source.android.com/docs/security/test/sanitizers

Some comments below on “I want a Go, but with more powerful OO” - well Raku adheres to the Smalltalk philosophy… everything is an object, and it has all the OO richness (rope) of C++ with multiple inheritance, role composition, parametric roles, MOP, mixins… all within an easy to use, easy to read style.

  my $forty-two = 42 but 'forty two';

Consider a server handling transactional requests, which submit jobs and get results from various background workers, which broadcast change events to remote observers.

This is straightforward to set up with channels in Go. But I haven't seen an example of this type of workload using structured concurrency.

But distributed systems are hard. If your system isn't inherently distributed, then don't rush towards a model of concurrency that emulates a distributed system. For anything on a single machine, prefer structured concurrency.

Also, at least at the time, the community was really hostile, but that was true of C++, Ada, and Java communities as well well. But I think those guys have chilled out, so maybe OCaml has too?

I see the desire to avoid mucking with control flow so much but something about check/handle just seemed so elegant to me in semi-complex error flows. I might be the only one who would have preferred that over accepting generics.

I can't remember at this point because there were so many similar proposals but I think there was a further iteration of check/handle that I liked better possibly but i'm obviously not invested anymore.

I kinda got used to it eventually, but I'll never ever consider not having enums a good thing.

Meanwhile Go's is just multiple value-returns with no checks whatsoever and you can return both a valid value and an error.

What `thiserror` or manually implementing `Error` buys you is the ability to actually do something about higher-level errors. In Rust design, not doing so in a public facing API is indeed considered bad practice. In Go, nobody seems to care about that, which of course makes code easier to write, but catching errors quickly becomes stringly typed. Yes, it's possible to do it correctly in Go, but it's ridiculously complicated, and I don't think I've ever seen any third-party library do it correctly.

That being said, I agree that manually implementing `Error` in Rust is way too time-consuming. There's also the added complexity of having to use a third-party crate to do what feels like basic functionality of error-handling. I haven't encountered problems with `thiserror` yet.

> Beyond these concerns, I also don't love enums for errors because it means adding any new error type will be a breaking change. I don't love the idea of committing to that, but maybe I'm overthinking?

If you wish to make sure it's not a breaking change, mark your enum as `#[non_exhaustive]`. Not terribly elegant, but that's exactly what this is for.

Hope it helped a bit :)

Is it a new error condition that downstream consumers want to know about so they can have different logic? Add the enum variant. The entire point of this pattern is to do what typed exceptions in Java were supposed to do, give consuming code the ability to reason about what errors to expect, and handle them appropriately if possible.

If your consumer can't be reasonably expected to recover? Use a generic failure variant, bonus points if you stuff the inner error in and implement std::Error so consumers can get the underlying error by calling .source() for debugging at least.

> By contrast, I just wrap Go errors with `fmt.Errorf("opening file `%s`: %w", filePath, err)` and handle any special error cases with `errors.As()` and similar and move on with life. It maybe doesn't feel _elegant_, but it lets me get stuff done.

Nothing stopping you from doing the same in Rust, just add a match arm with a wildcard pattern (_) to handle everything but your special cases.

In fact, if you suspect you are likely to add additional error variants, the `#[non_exhaustive]` attribute exists explicitly to handle this. It will force consumers to provide a match arm with a wildcard pattern to prevent additions to the enum from causing API incompatibility. This does come with some other limitations, so RTFM on those, but it does allow you to add new variants to an Error enum without requiring a major semver bump.

However, I wouldn't recommend it. Breakage over errors is not necessarily a bad thing. If you need to change the API for your errors, and downstreams are required to have generic cases, they will be forced to silently accept new error types without at least checking what those new error types are for. This is disadvantageous in a number of significant cases.

You can annotate your error enum with #[non_exhaustive], then it will not be a breaking change if you add a new variant. Effectively, you enforce that anybody doing a match on the enum must implement the "default" case, i.e. that nothing matches.

For example, Pythons syntax is quite nice for the most part, but I hate indentation being syntax. I like braces for scoping, I just do. Rust exists in both camps for me; I love matching with Result and Option, but lifetime syntax confuses me sometimes. Not everyone will agree, they are opinions.

No, this is a wild claim that shows you've either never written async Rust or never written heavily templated C++. Feel free to give code examples if you want to suggest otherwise.

And that’s where a number of people blow a gasket.

They're not.

  fn main() {
      unsafe {
          COUNTER += 1;
          println!("COUNTER = {}", COUNTER);
      }
  
      unsafe {
          COUNTER += 10;
          println!("COUNTER = {}", COUNTER);
      }
  }

There's a similar quote from The Mythical Man Month [0, page 102]:

> Show me your flowchart and conceal your tables, and I shall continue to be mystified. Show me your tables, and I won't usually need your flowcharts; they’ll be obvious.

And a somewhat related one from Linus [1]:

> I will, in fact, claim that the difference between a bad programmer and a good one is whether he considers his code or his data structures more important. Bad programmers worry about the code. Good programmers worry about data structures and their relationships.

[0]: https://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/academic/class/15712-s19/www/p...

[1]: https://lwn.net/Articles/193245/

A programming language forces a culture on everybody in the project - it's not just a personal decision like your example.

And the compiler had nothing to say about it. "Carry on, thisi is perfectly fine rust code that might crash your app with a panic if left unchecked, no biggie. LGTM" - rust compiler

    struct foo {
        ...
        atomic_int v;
        ...
    };
    
    struct foo x;
    memset(&x, 0, sizeof(x));

People are taught it’s very bad because otherwise they do exactly this, which is the problem. What does your compiler do here may change from invocation to invocation, due to seemingly unrelated flags, small perturbations in unrelated code, or many other things. This approach encourages accepting UB in your program. Code that invokes UB is incorrect, full stop.

Careful. It's not just "consult your compiler", because the behavior of a given compiler on code containing UB is also allowed to vary based on specific compiler version, and OS, and hardware, and the phase of the moon.

If you want to add 'proper' error types, wrapping them is just as difficult in Go and Rust (needing to implement `Error` in Go or `std::Error` in Rust). And, while we can argue about macro magic all day, the `thiserror` crate makes said boilerplate a non-issue and allows you to properly propagate strongly-typed errors with context when needed (and if you're not writing library code to be consumed by others, `anyhow` helps a lot too).

The proof is in the pudding, though. In my experience, working across Go codebases in open source and in multiple closed-source organizations, errors are nearly universally wrapped and handled appropriately. The same is not true of Rust, where in my experience ? (and indeed even unwrap) reign supreme.

    try:
        f = open('foo.txt', 'w')
    except Exception as e:
        raise NecessaryContext("important information") from e

That simple example in Python is missing all the other stuff you have to put around it. Go would have another error check, but I get to decide, at that point in the execution, how I want to handle it in this context

... with no other context whatsoever, so you can't glean any information about the call stack that led to the exception.

Exceptions are really a whole different kettle of fish (and in my opinion are just strictly worse than even the worst errors-as-values implementations).

You can do that in Rust too. This code doesn't warn:

    let _ = File::create("foo.txt");

This isn't true in my experience. Most Go codebases I've worked in wrap their errors.

If you don't believe me, go and take a look at some open-source Go projects.

    ?

The UX is terrible — the path of least resistance is that of laziness. You should be forced to provide an error message, i.e.

    ?("failed to create file: {e}")

In Go, for one reason or another, it's standard to provide error context; it's not typical at all to just return a bare `err` — it's frowned upon and unidiomatic.

It's quite ridiculous that you're claiming errors can be easily left unhandled while referring to what, a single unfortunate pattern of code that will only realistically happen due to copy-pasting and gets you code that looks obviously wrong? Sigh.

This really isn't an issue in practice. The only case where an error wouldn't uniquely identify its call stack is if you were to use the exact same context string within the same function (and also your callees did the same). I've never encountered such a case.

> You are also not forced to add context

Yes, but in my experience Go devs do. Probably because they're having to go to the effort of typing `if err != nil` anyway, and frankly Go code with bare:

    if err != nil {
        return err
    }

> which even linters won't pick up, due to asinine variable syntax rules.

I have never encountered a case where errcheck failed to detect an unhandled error, but I'd be curious to hear an example.

- has the ergonomics, abstractions, expressiveness and conveniences of a high-level language with pointer-level semantics if/when needed (essentially covering the abstraction vs. cost spectrum of all those languages)

- can be used with or without GC (same)

- has the libraries and tooling to tackle massively concurrent/parallel workloads with ease (the niche that Go carved for itself)

- offers the same memory safety guarantees as Rust, and possibly more in the future with capture-checking (a more general concept than borrow-checking to guarantee resources scoping at compile-time)

How so? Garbage collection has inherent performance overhead wrt. manual memory management, and Rust now addresses this by providing the desired guarantees of managed memory without the overhead of GC.

A modern terminal emulator is not going to involve complex reference graphs where objects may cyclically reference one another with no clearly-defined "owner"; which is the one key scenario where GC is an actual necessity even in a low-level systems language. What do they even need GC for? Rather, they should tweak the high-level design of their program to emsure that object lifetimes are properly accounted for without that costly runtime support.

You will be very rich.

Rust OTOH is obsessively precise about enforcing these sort of things.

Of course Rust has a lot of features and compiles slower.

Here is one about how to structure a project (roughly)

https://youtube.com/watch?v=XpDsk374LDE

I also think looking at the source code for elm and its website, as well as the elm real world example help a lot.